German army ww1 tactics. [a] Assault troopers are .

• German army ww1 tactics. Visionary combined arms tactics Read the essential details about the strategy and tactics in the First World War. Infiltration Tactics: Infiltration tactics were used over a wide range of the later years of the World War. The stormtrooper tactic was to attack and disrupt enemy headquarters, artillery units and supply depots in the rear areas, as well as to occupy territory rapidly. Despite World War I’s reputation as a senseless bloodbath whose military operations were devoid of any intelligent thought, the period 1914-1918 was history’s single largest revolution in military tactics and technologies. Oct 10, 2007 · Although the German Army's command structure was already decentralized for the most part, soldiers like Rohr as well as Pioneer units were already well versed in Auftragstaktik (mission tactics, a. In the last years of World War I, Stoßtruppen ("shock troopers" or "shove troopers") were trained to use infiltration tactics – part of the Germans' improved method of attack on enemy trenches. First Army air unite retaliated with bombing raids which broke up German preparations for counterattacks. The former for infantry infiltrations and the latter for the more effective use of artillery to suppress enemy defense. Likewise, almost everything about battlefield operations in 1918 remains Apr 20, 2012 · New information on the origin of shock tactics is presented, gleaned from German archives and not previously published in English. Apr 2, 2024 · The military strategies employed during World War I profoundly influenced the course of warfare and national boundaries for generations. Feb 28, 2025 · The crisis of the battle of the Somme forced the German army to introduce new tactics. With unprecedented scale and complexity, these strategies reshaped traditional notions of combat through the integration of emerging technologies and innovative tactics. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, with Russia defeated, allowed Germany to concentrate on the Western Front. As in the classic pre-World War I doctrine, the new doctrine sought single and double envelopments, it aimed as much at the disorientation and dislocation of the enemy command system as it did at the annihilation The German military leadership therefore took note of the change in war technology and operations management and drew conclusions from it. Both armies had different backgrounds and situations. After a successful breakthrough at Sedan, German forces subdued the French Military and conquered France in just six and a half weeks, an achievement that was unobtainable over the course of four years from 1914-1918 during the First World War. Aug 17, 2020 · Thereby, we will compare and contrast the strategies of the German military in the First World War in 1914-18 and the strategies of under Hitler in 1939-45. Apr 6, 2025 · War Tactics in WW1: Evolution of Modern Combat World War I marked a dramatic shift in military tactics and technology. mil Mar 25, 2024 · During the Great War, new weapons were used for the first time or on a large scale. Virtually nothing about standard battlefield operations prior to 1914 remained valid after 1918. Elastic Defense: Elastic defense is a military strategy that was used by the German army. An elastic defense is when an army seeks to delay rather than prevent the advance of an attacker by buying time and causing additional casualties. Technical Manual TM-E 30-451: Handbook on German Military Forces. GERMAN MILITARY TRAINING Those principles of tactics and leadership which are emphasized in training are inevitably reflected in the actual conduct of operations. The tactics used at Tannenberg were instrumental in the outcome of this confrontation, ultimately favoring German forces. The war introduced new forms of deadly efficiency: Trench Warfare Perhaps the most iconic tactic of WW1, trench warfare, defined much of the Western Front. [12 Feb 14, 2025 · WW1 German uniforms influenced battlefield tactics, soldier mobility, and military strategy. Up that point the Kaiser’s soldiers wore the thin and largely useless spiked pickelhaubes. a. At the age of 17, a man might be called up to serve in the Landsturm 1st Ban, a sort of National Guard for home defense. (Graphic adapted by the author, courtesy of the Army War College, German and Austrian Tactical Studies [1918]) Apr 9, 2014 · The battalions pioneered many of the small-unit tactics that are still in use on battlefields to this day. The Russians undertook two offensives, one in East Prussia and one in Galicia. The innovative new German stormtrooper tactics of 1918 were very successful and foreshadowed the blitzkrieg tactics of the Second World War, but their very success contributed to German defeat. The Eastern Front or Eastern Theater, of World War I, [b] was a theater of operations that encompassed at its greatest extent the entire frontier between Russia and Romania on one side and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Germany on the other. Nov 6, 1989 · Focusing on action at the company, platoon, and squad level, Stormtroop Tactics provides a detailed description of the evolution of German defensive tactics during World War I--tactics that were the direct forbears of those used in World War II. "Shock troop" is a calque, a loose translation of the German word Stoßtrupp (literally "thrust squad" or "push squad"). Pre-war tactics became obsolete with the introduction of automated weapons, tanks and aircraft. By the end of October the enemy had been cleared from the Argonne and First Army troops were through the German main positions. The first surge neutralized enemy defensive positions and machine guns. Regardless of this, military planning and the interaction between the military and politics in Germany showed a number of serious deficits that became obvious during the First World War. The had a strong staff command culture, and after ww1 really studied the war hard to learn lessons to develop from there into new operational tactics. It covers areas previously left unexplored: the German Infantry's tactical heritage, the squad's evolution as a tactical unit, the use of new weapons for close combat, the role of the Besides providing a summary of German Infantry tactics of the First World War, this study offers insights into the crucial role of leadership in facilitating doctrinal change during battle. Fuehren mit Auftrag), where the Officer or senior NCO in charge is given the objective, but it is left up to him to decide how to take it. Initially Germany followed the Schlieffen Plan, which called for a defensive posture on the Eastern Front and launching a massive offensive attack on France. During their assaults they would apply a deadly mix of shock, surprise and ultra violence. In March 1915, an experimental unit called the Sturmabteilung (enlarged to a Sturmbataillon in April 1916) was founded to centralize the process. Storm troopers The origin of the term blitzkrieg is obscure. At a tactical level, squads attacked in linear formation. The German Army had four classifications of military service; Active, Reserve, Landwehr and Landsturm. The Chief of the General Staff became the Kaiser's main military adviser and the most powerful military figure in the empire. In the last years of World War I, Stoßtruppen ("shock troopers" or "shove troopers") were trained to Jun 30, 1995 · Describing the radical transformation in German Infantry tactics that took place during World War I, this book presents the first detailed account of the evolution of stormtroop tactics available in English. Allan Collection internetarchivebooks; inlibrary; printdisabled Contributor Internet Archive Language English Item Size 598. Specific operations on all fronts are included, along with extracts from German army manuals for shock-troop arms such as flamethrowers, mortars, machine guns, grenade launchers, assault artillery, and tanks. Two individuals were particularly associated with these tactics, Oskar von Hutier and Georg Bruchmüller. This manual details the construction of trenches, both underground and other primary materials, Major Wray analyzes the doctrine and tactics that the Germans used on the Eastern Front during World War III At the end of World War I, the Germans adopted the elastic defense IR depth and continued to use it as therr basic doctrine through the end of World War IIL However, because of limitations caused by difficult terrain, severe weather, manpawer and supply The Imperial German Army in World War I was the largest armed force in Germany. [a] Assault troopers are Jul 21, 2024 · Explore the German military strategies during the Battle of Normandy, analyzing defensive tactics, command structures, and their lasting legacy on future conflicts. Apr 1, 2024 · The Battle of Tannenberg, fought in late August 1914, stands as a pivotal engagement in World War I, showcasing a complex interplay of military strategies. Shock troops, assault troops, or storm troops are special formations created to lead military attacks. Ernst Udet was in charge of shaping the Luftwaffe in the iner-war years, and a focus was placed on fast planes used to support offensive operations, instead of long range, high volume bombers. However, they were crucial in breaking through the formidable German defences and helping to bring the war to a close. Feb 18, 2021 · The German ‘Sturmbattalions’ were famous for their aggressive fighting style and decentralized command. This entry charts and evaluates these debates. Apr 4, 2015 · Here follows a few thoughts on how to play the units in reference to the German Infantry Doctrine used in the great open battles of 1914. It once again reminds us that success in war demands extensive and vigorous training calculated to insure that field commanders understand and apply sound tactical principles as guidelines for action and Christian Stachelbeck Despite the defeat of 1918, the tactical warfare of German forces on battlefields against a superior enemy coalition was often very effective. Gone were the days of cavalry charges and linear formations. The German army’s cutting-edge tactics were primarily based on two military principles that proved of particular importance in the mass positional warfare of 1914-18: the German command-and-control-culture of Auftragstaktik (directive command), and the focus on combined arms tactics that was rooted in pre-1914 doctrine. He was assisted by a Military Cabinet and exercised control through the Prussian Ministry of War and the Great General Staff. Like German doctrine after World War I, Blitzkrieg stressed infiltration tactics and flanking movements for both infantry and armor. Sep 1, 2018 · All battles fought in history have depended to a greater extent on the technique of foot soldiers and World War II was no different. This conjures up images of unimaginative military operations. [1] The military history of Germany during the Middle Ages was full of siege warfare and the technological changes that come from fighting that kind of war. arrangement of multiple tactical actions against the German defenders. Although fighting occurred worldwide, the bulk of the French Army's operations occurred in Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Alsace-Lorraine along what came to be known as the Western Front, which consisted mainly of trench warfare. k. First discussed are the intellectual tools mobilised during the period, and second, the actual preparation and training of the French army, turned toward its main counterpart in Europe, Germany. Study the evolution of warfare from WWI's trench battles to WWII's Blitzkrieg tactics and their lasting impact on military strategy. This video explores the basic organization of a German infantry This article focuses on the military anticipation and preparation for war in France (1870-1914). Helmuth von German officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) began experimenting with new assault tactics immediately after the army entered the trenches. Several nations modified their existing tactics in ways that supported ideas that were later called infiltration tactics, with the German developments having the most impact, both during the war and afterwards. It covers areas previously left unexplored: the German Infantry's tactical heritage, the squad's evolution as a tactical unit, the use of new weapons for close combat, the role of the World War 1, ‘The Great War’, as it was known, broke out in 1914 and brought into conflict the major European military empires of France, Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, as well as Japan and the Ottoman Empire. Bullets Quickly Write New Tactics: WWI TacticsBy Roger Daene Wilhelm Balck said about tactics, “Bullets quickly write new tactics. The campaign all but ended in German East Africa in November 1917 when the Germans entered Mozambique and continued the campaign living off Portuguese supplies . See full list on armyupress. The German Army’s Sturm battalions represented an army-wide institutionalization of organization, selection and technique. While this bul-letin will make no detailed study of German tactics, it will bring out the main doctrines which are applied in battle as a result of training. Learn about the design, materials, and historical significance of these iconic wartime uniforms. Nov 12, 2018 · The forgotten ruthlessness of Canada’s Great War soldiers Modern Canadians cannot condemn the sometimes shocking behaviour of their WWI soldiers without knowing the stress of battle, historian The commander of the Imperial German Army, less the Bavarian contingent, was the Kaiser. Heer Publisher London : I. ” He was a divisional commander in the First World War and had written many articles and manuals on tactics before the Great War. 92 Tim Travers, The Killing Ground: The British Army, the Western Front and the Emergence of Modern War (Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword Military, 2009), 128. Despite these views, the war sparked a revolution in military tactics and technologies. Index Menu. Highlights amongst the manuals include: Construction of Dugouts, Textbook, 1917 One of the most recalled characteristic of World War I is the stalemate of trench warfare. 7 million heavy artillery shells for the beginning of the Battle of Verdun but four million rounds were fired in the first fortnight and the 5th Army needed about 34 ammunition trains a day to continue the battle. The important lesson that the German military thinkers brought out of WWI was that the machine-gun, not the rifle, was the primary killing weapon on the battlefield. Jan 17, 2019 · Meaning ‘lightning war’ in German, Blitzkrieg was a military tactic used by the Nazis in World War II. [1] The German Empire entered the war certain that the conflict would be won in the 2 mar - 1915 First Stormtrooper unit authorised on the Western Front The Stormtroopers were specialist soldiers of the German Army who used precise infiltration tactics to target their enemies during WWI. The German army thus went to war in 1939 using innovative mobile tactics led by independent tank formations supported by aircraft. Tactics World War I carries a reputation as a pointless bloodbath. Cataloging primary and secondary source documents pertaining to military history, including military manuals, tables of organization and equipment, other force structure data, and academic articles. From the creation of the First German Empire in 843 until the creation of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg, the middles ages were fought in similar fashion to those of ancient times. 5 million field and 2. The German Army was a highly organized and complexly structured armed force made up of various types of troops and units. The Sturmabteilung developed a procedure called “infiltration tactics”. The German army had begun 1916 equally well-provided for in artillery and ammunition, massing 8. Infiltration tactics would also be expanded from infantry to cooperating teams of infantry and armored units, becoming one of the cornerstones of the Blitzkrieg. The heavy losses suffered by the allies until well into the last months of the war are evidence of this. In the process it outlines the state of the scholarship today. army. France had built a system of fortresses to defend against Germany, but France's Plan XVII proved inadequate to the task of stopping the German offensive. Mass infantry charging senselessly into machinegun fire. ” [48] It is evident that GHQ understood the continuing need for the evolution of both the grand and minor tactics. Doctrine issued in October 1915 called for the construction of at least two positions, far enough apart to force the enemy to mount a separate operation to attack each War Dept. The 25 manuals date from 1913 to 1919. Jul 21, 2024 · Explore the Battle of Verdun strategies, highlighting innovative tactics, key commanders, and lasting lessons that shaped modern warfare and military thought. As the war spread around the globe, it would eventually include the United States and cost millions of lives before it was finally concluded in a series of From the time when the German Army was forced on the defensive by the Allied armies, German tactical doctrines have undergone modifications such as renunciation (except in unstated instances)of air support, and the substitution of linear defense for elastic offensive defense. What they didnt learn was the poor strategic leadership flaws of Germany in ww1 and these would be repeated in spades in ww2. However, military tactics initially remained faithful to outdated ideas, with dense formations attacking exposed to artillery fire. 2K Jun 18, 2024 · Explore the evolution of military tactics in WWII, from Blitzkrieg strategies to guerrilla warfare, and discover their lasting influence on modern combat techniques. Explore the strategies, weaponry, and the legacy of this powerful military machine. French infantry pushing through enemy barbed wire, 1915 During World War I, France was one of the Triple Entente powers allied against the Central Powers. Jul 4, 2025 · World War I - Technology, 1914, Arms Race: The modern machine gun and the rapid-fire field artillery gun changed how warfare was conducted, and existing military plans did not always reflect this fact. Oct 28, 2024 · Dive into the history of the Imperial German Army, a formidable force that shaped World War I. Likewise, almost everything about battlefield operations in 1918 remains For Further Reading German Army Handbook, April 1918, introduction by David Nash, published by Arms and Armour Press, London, 1977 Stormtroop Tactics, Innovation in the German Army, 1914-1918, by Bruce I. [5] Learn how combined arms tactics in WWI transformed combat by coordinating infantry, artillery, tanks, and aircraft to break the deadlock of trench warfare. 3. The Imperial German Army used these “storm trooper” tactics to advance up to forty miles in just a few days during the Spring Offensives in 1918. Jul 16, 2022 · Imperial German Army handbook, 1914-1918 by Nash, David, 1939- Publication date 1980 Topics Germany. At the beginning of the war, the army was strongly influenced by the traditions of the 19th century, with its organization and structure based on the experiences of the unification wars and the The German's focused on developing very fast, highly offensive shock tactics in the post-WW1 era (specifically in 1936+). 1 Using innovative motorized infantry tactics supported by close Apr 19, 2018 · Myth: The German army was a superb tactical instrument, a true meritocracy with a very flexible system of command which enabled fast responses and great flexibility. Realizing they were losing too many men to massed charges, which rarely achieved their goals, they redefined how infantry soldiers fought. Stormtroopers (German: Sturmtruppen[2] or Stoßtruppen[3]) were the only elite shock troops of the Imperial German Army (Deutsches Heer) that specialized in commando style raids, infiltrating the trenches and wiping out the enemy quickly, maneuver warfare, reconnaissance, and shock tactics. [1] After the Battle of the Marne in 1914 and the subsequent German retreat, the war on the western front became more of a Nov 8, 2023 · Trench warfare forced military strategists to develop fresh tactics – and terrifying new weaponry – in a bid to gain the upper hand German and British war planning has attracted a great deal of attention, but also generated a great deal of controversy. Infantry tactics simply refer to military techniques and strategy employed by a nation’s infantry on the battlefield to achieve set goals and tactical objectives Mar 10, 2011 · Explore how did the German experience of WW1 trench warfare differed from that of the Allies. STEP 2: ZUGs taking light fire, can adopt Skirmish formation, symbolized by spreading out the bases lightly. The German army had concentrated many of its best troops into stormtrooper units, trained in infiltration tactics to infiltrate and bypass enemy front line units, leaving these strong points to be "mopped-up" by follow-up troops. Jul 4, 2025 · World War I - Eastern Front, Strategy, 1914: The Austrian army attacked Russian Poland on the Eastern Front. By 1917, French infantry assault tactics called for platoons to advance in surges. These units made it easier for the German Army to break through enemy defenses and reap their souls since most forces weren’t prepared for an all-out assault when it hit them. Assault detachments were also the first German soldiers to be equipped with the distinctive stahlhelm steel helmets. It covers areas previously left unexplored: the German Infantry's tactical heritage, the squad's evolution as a tactical unit, the use of new weapons for close combat, the role of the Aug 24, 2024 · Conclusion: The True Legacy of British Infantry Tactics Of course, many factors contributed to the German defeat in WW1, and British stormtrooper tactics weren’t the sole reason. It ranged from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, involved most of Eastern Europe, and stretched deep into German Squad Tactics in World War 2. Gudmundsson, published by Praeger Publishers, 1989 Imperial German Army 1914-1918, Organization, Structure, Orders of Battle, by Herman Crom, Heilion & Company, 2002 Das Koniglich Bayerische Feb 26, 2016 · These new tactics were crucial to the plans of both the German Chief of the General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, and the unit carrying out the offensive at Verdun, the 5th Army under the command of the German Crown Prince Wilhelm with Constantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf as his chief of staff. Though World War I is often characterized as a conflict lacking warfighting ingenuity and innovation, German General Erich Ludendorff presents an interesting dichotomy of master tactician but failed strategist. 2mm gun and the Lewis Gun. Mar 12, 2018 · The German Spring Offensive in 1918, the so called Kaiserschlacht or Operation Michael, was the biggest German offensive of World War 1 and Quartermaster Erich Ludendorff prepared his troops for May 24, 2014 · Staff Command Culture. Sections include - The Schliefffen Plan, Patrols & Raids, Tunnelling, Snipers, Artillery Barrage, Cavalry Tactics, Chlorine Gas (3) personnel selection, and (4) training on decentralized leadership, small unit infiltration tactics, and advanced weapon y. It covers areas previously left the German Infantry's tactical heritage, the squad's evolution as a tactical unit, the use of new weapons for close combat, the role of the elite assault Apr 26, 2016 · German Infantry Division 1914/18 - Visualization - Organization & Structure Military History Visualized 782K subscribers 2. [19] The term seems to have been rarely used in the German military press The noted military historian John Keegan summarized the German’s failure this way: “Germany’s failure to match the Allies in tank development must be judged one of their worst military miscalculations of the war. It learnt and adapted to the challenges of the new warfare with speed and skill, developing ‘stormtroop’ tactics in the attack, and elastic ‘defence in depth’ tactics when under threat, both of which underpin modern Oct 16, 2016 · Rommel, Patton and Zhukov would have understood the German approach very well. Mixed arms assault units The keys to the German Army’s new tactics were one weapon that was much less favoured by the British and the French – the flamethrower – and two weapons that were available only from captured stocks of Russian and British equipment – the Russian model 1902 76. The German infantry squad was the mainstay of the German Wehrmacht in the Second World War. To determine such a thing, we will go through three points. The United States had avoided being Translated from a captured German document in June 1917, this diagram displays the organization of a regimental sector. [1] By the start of the battle, German defensive methods had moved away from the pre-war system of establishing and holding one strong line. World War I Field Manuals 3,413 pages of World War I era field manuals, textbooks, pamphlets, and bulletins. Bavaria kept its own Ministry of War and General Staff Nov 1, 1989 · Describing the radical transformation in German Infantry tactics that took place during World War I, this book presents the first detailed account of the evolution of stormtroop tactics available in English. Mar 19, 2018 · Towards the end of WWI, German generals modified their doctrine to reflect the changes in technology and tactics. These tactics produced rapid victories in 1939-40, but they did not result from a widespread consensus within the army regarding the lessons of the previous war. 2 The tactical level of military action comprises the field of direct battle with forces up to division size. Specific Jul 11, 2024 · This setback necessitated a reevaluation of military tactics and organization. Stormtroopers (German language: Sturmtruppen[2] or Stoßtruppen[3]) were specialist soldiers of the German Army. German officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) began experimenting with new assault tactics immediately after the army entered the trenches. Storm tactics were championed by General Oskar von Hutier, an army commander battling Tsarist Russia on the Eastern The East African campaign in World War I was a series of battles and guerrilla actions, which started in German East Africa (GEA) and spread to portions of Mozambique, Rhodesia, British East Africa, the Uganda, and the Belgian Congo. The British Army equivalent was the Territorial force. Describing the radical transformation in German Infantry tactics that took place during World War I, this book presents the first detailed account of the evolution of stormtroop tactics available in English. Based on training, equipment, leadership and doctrine what was the best Army that fought in WW1? These tactics emerged gradually during World War I. Third, the article questions the impact in France of “peripheral wars”: the Anglo-Boer War (1899 Mar 7, 2021 · Indeed, the British attritional tactics were extremely effective at wearing down the strength of the German army and gobbled up German reserves: Between 1 July and the battle’s end on 18 November, 90,00 German divisions served on the Somme front. It was never used in the title of a military doctrine or handbook of the German Army or Air Force, [8] and no "coherent doctrine" or "unifying concept of blitzkrieg" existed; German High Command mostly referred to the group of tactics as "Bewegungskrieg" (Maneuver Warfare). They are often better trained and equipped than other military units and are expected to take heavier casualties even in successful operations. The reason this came about was because the German squad leaders actually employed their whole formation as a single, large, MG team. The Canadian Corps’ trench raiders Despite World War I’s reputation as a senseless bloodbath whose military operations were devoid of any intelligent thought, the period 1914-1918 was history’s single largest revolution in military tactics and technologies. Ultimately, the Italian Front campaigns played a critical role in the broader context of World War I campaigns. Apr 2, 2019 · German soldiers (wearing distinctive pickelhaube helmets with cloth covers) on the front at the First Battle of the Marne during World War I Another factor that contributed to the development of stormtroop tactics in 1918 was another idea that seems to run counter to the image of the German/Prussian military man as a mindless military machine. Rooted in the concept of speed and surprise, Blitzkrieg is a coordinated, maneuver-focused military tactic in which the objective was to break enemy lines as quickly as possible through a dense concentration of armored vehicles, air strikes, and then eventually the infiltration of ground Jun 30, 2015 · Before detailing the development of oper-ational thinking in German military philosophy, it is necessary to first provide a short and simple over-view of the operational level of war and joint operations as concepts. The Germans were unable to replenish the troops fit for storm trooper tactics during the war, but the lessons would guide the new German Army when rearmament proceeded in the 1930’s. Uncover its organization, tactics, and the impact it had on global conflict. Apr 3, 2017 · WASHINGTON -- War!That was the headline screaming from newspapers around the country on April 6, 1917, as the United States declared war on the German empire. 2 Tim Travers, How the War Was Won: Command and Technology in the British Army on the Western Front, 1917–18 (London: Routledge, 1992), 34–5; Tim Travers, ‘The Evolution of British Strategy and Tactics on the Western Front in 1918: GHQ, Manpower and Technology’, Journal of Military History 54 (1990), 173–200. Mar 25, 2024 · The infiltration tactics, as known to the Allies, were based on surprise and effective cooperation between artillery, assaulting infantry, and assault groups. In order to fully understand how WWI was a total war from Germany’s perspective, one must first realize the background of Germany’s military strategy entering the war. Though he pioneered highly successful offensive and defensive techniques during the waning years of the war, Ludendorff proved incapable of turning battlefield success into strategic The Germans launched a massive spring offensive in 1918 spearheaded by elite stormtroopers units in a desperate bid to win the World War I. STEP 1: ZUGs advancing. 7M May 30, 2016 · These men were the creme de la creme of the German Army consisting of Jäger, Pioneer and Mountain troops at first and later on specifically trained in infiltration tactics. For example, infiltration or “storm troop” infantry tactics – sometimes dubbed “Pétain tactics” after the innovative commander who was to rise to command of the army by 1917, though often, if erroneously, attributed to the German army – were tested in 1915 and became standard practice in offensive operations thereafter. fxrir otdtma seayc pnhh reofvrryx qahzt tptz buztn qmoh hrh